Understanding Disenfranchised Grief in Ecological Grief and Forced Migration:

A Dual Process Model Perspective

Undoubtedly, we are living in challenging and unprecedented ecological times within human history, where we are witnessing only the beginning stages of global climate change and ecological loss due to global warming. With the rise of global warming there has been a correlating rise in ecological grief, eco-anxiety and forced migration from parts of the world being most affected by climate change (Comtesse, et al., 2021; Dodds, 2021; Bellizi, et al., 2023). Thus, it is not difficult to imagine there being an increase in both ecological grief and forced migration due to this global situation we are facing as humans. Doka (2008) defines disenfranchised grief "as grief that results when a person experiences a significant loss and the resultant grief is not openly acknowledged, socially validated, or publicly mourned" (p.224). Whereas Kevorkian (2019) claims that environmental (I use ecological instead of environmental) grief is the grief response arising from the ecological loss of ecosystems that are either due to natural causes and/or caused by human actions. This form of grief overlaps with disenfranchised grief because it is not openly acknowledged, socially validated, or publicly mourned in our contemporary society.

Whereas, forced migration or displacement from one’s homeland can be an experience of ambiguous loss, (Boss, 1999) where either the person is physically present but psychologically absent, or the opposite, where the individual is physically absent but psychologically present. Ambiguous loss can easily become disenfranchised grief due to its ambiguity and society not knowing how to respond or acknowledge it.  The importance of understanding these two forms of disenfranchised grief is that it can help normalize these as valid forms of grief, but more importantly, society can begin to address it on political, economic, social, and mental health levels. Finally, in applying the Dual Process Model (DPM) to these two forms of disenfranchised grief, this paper will show the advantages and disadvantages of this model when applied to ecological grief and the ambiguous loss of forced migration.

The Dual Process Model (DPM) is a contemporary model of grief that moves the needle within the field of grief theory. Stroebe and Schut (1999) developed the DPM which marks a shift in grief theory that had at the time historically viewed grief as stages (Kübler-Ross, 1969) or tasks (Worden, 1991) to work through or complete. The DPM offers a more dynamic stance towards grief by providing coping strategies within bereavement, where individuals oscillate between two poles: 1) loss-oriented and 1) restoration-oriented. So rather than moving through stages or tasks, in this model one can oscillate as frequently as they are naturally inclined to do so, while knowing that there is no timeline or last stage of grief to work through. Thus, providing the bereaved a more fluid, flexible, and nuanced approach to their grief experience. Additionally, this model allows the bereaved individual to cope with secondary losses that accompany the primary or original loss.

The DPM consists of the two stressors: loss-oriented and restoration-oriented, whereby the bereft individual can at times confront and at other times avoid their grief. During the confrontation in the loss-oriented pole, the individual focuses on the aspect of the loss experience itself by doing the grief work, feeling the instruction of grief, and practicing letting go of continuing bond or ties with the deceased loved one (Stroebe and Schut, 1999). This orientation involves the pain of searching for the deceased loved one. The behavior that accompanies this orientation can look like reminiscing memories while looking at photos, etc. In contrast, with the restoration-orientation the individual oscillates towards avoidance of the grief by addressing secondary losses or stressors that are direct consequences of the loss of their loved one. Here, the bereft individual attends to the life changes in this post-loss reality while doing and trying new things, distracting oneself from the grief, and taking on new roles, identities, and cultivating new relationships (Stroebe and Schut, 1999). This restoration-orientation can manifest through behaviors such as coping with new responsibilities, such as the taking on the responsibilities that the deceased loved one used to do while alive.

The relevance of DPM with disenfranchised grief, is that it provides a dynamic process of oscillation, allowing the bereft individual the ability to move back and forth in their coping strategies, whether that be through direct confrontation or avoidance of the grief. Furthermore, with the DPM it allows for the grief to remain as long as it wants or needs to, without placing any timetable or expectations on the process. This provides those experiencing disenfranchised grief the opportunity to express their grief however they need to without any judgement. The DPM also provides the opportunity to address the direct and secondary sources of grief that accompany a loss, which helps provide a more nuanced approach to grief work by showing that there are layers to how one can experience a loss.

Ecological grief is the grief response arising from the environmental loss of ecosystems that are either natural or caused by human actions (Kevorkian, 2019). Comtesse, et al., (2021) write about how with loss there are both tangible and intangible losses, where an emotional investment has occurred. This has been reported to be the case with people being harmed by climate change, especially with intangible losses such as the loss of cropland, livestock, and the loss of a way of life, etc. Thus, ecological grief is the natural response to these losses due to global climate change. Cunsolo and Ellis (2018) build on the definition of ecological grief as “the grief felt in relation to experienced or anticipated ecological losses, including the loss of species, ecosystems and meaningful landscapes due to acute or chronic environmental change” (p. 275). This definition helps illustrate another layer to this form of disenfranchised grief — that it not only can be felt in response to the loss itself but also as anticipatory grief — where one anticipates the future loss of ecosystems and species, etc.

Some factors that lead to disenfranchisement of ecological grief are that it isn’t socially acceptable or validated. For instance, let’s take the simple example of losing your pet, a dog for example. Imagine going to your boss at work and asking for time off to grieve the loss of your dog— even pet loss would be considered a form of ecological loss (Kevorkian, 2020). Now, let’s take the example of losing your land, livestock, and home due to climate change — How much more would this impact you? Although no human loss occurred in this example, there is still other tangible and intangible losses here. I don’t imagine many businesses and organizations have ecological loss and the accompanied grief in their Human Resource departments or their employee handbooks. The other aspect of ecological grief that makes it disenfranchised grief is that there are no public rituals for mourning publicly climate change and ecological loss, whether that be in response to an event or anticipatory grief. As of now, if one feels eco-anxiety or ecological grief, they either find support through private counseling, if they have the financial resources, or through peer support groups (Kevorkian, 2020).

The DPM with its dual approach to working with grief, by oscillating between loss-orientation and restoration-orientation, is an inclusive grief model that can benefit those experiencing ecological grief. In applying the oscillation-orientation to ecological grief, the counselor may help the bereft individual with feeling and expressing their grief towards the loss of their land, home, and the local ecosystem. Again, this can apply to whether that is in response to a loss or the anticipatory grief they are experiencing. The critical component for working in loss-orientation is the process of letting go, addressing continuing bonds, or relocating those previous bonds to the land, ecosystem, or species that they had formed a bond or attachment with. Comtesse, et al., (2021) claim that place attachment has been cited as the theoretical substratum of ecological grief. In this situation, place is used to refer to anything that had significance or meaning, such as one’s house, property, or the natural landscape and ecosystem. Therefore, it would be essential for the counselor to help the bereft individual address their attachment and bonds with the place that they either have lost or anticipate losing due to climate change. It should be stated that indigenous communities and those who have a close and intimate relationship with the land they live on might have a stronger grief experience than others, so there needs to be cultural awareness and humility when working with individuals experiencing ecological grief.

One of the great aspects of the DPM is that the bereaved do not have to stay in the loss-orientation aspect of grief work, as they can oscillate as frequently as they naturally need to while shifting towards restoration-orientation. The restoration-orientation can be applied to working with those experiencing ecological grief by helping attend to new life changes and develop new roles or relationships with their environment. For instance, if the person has been directly affected by climate change and experienced loss, they can be assisted in finding new ways to adapt to their new reality by distracting themselves from the loss and focusing on new ways of being in this world of climate disruption. One potential area would be to examine one’s assumptive world. The concept of an assumptive world is that we all have underlying assumptions or beliefs that ground and orient us in the world. Our assumptive world can be shattered when any type of death or loss is experienced in life (Beder, 2005).

Secondly, while working with people in the restoration-orientation, the counselor can help the bereaved in establishing a new relationship with the land. In the case of a person losing their home and land due to climate change, one can begin to learn how to re-establish a relationship with the land whether they stay or are forced to move somewhere else. There is an opportunity here to reestablish a relationship with the land that can provide new meaning within the post-loss reality. Or, in the case that the individual is struggling with anticipatory ecological grief, the counselor can help the bereft individual discover new ways of relating to the land that they already live on. For example, they could learn how to compost, garden, reduce their carbon footprint as ways to act, albeit small ways, but ways that provide them a sense of agency and connection with the land that they live on. Additionally, in doing so they might begin to form a new identity as a steward of this earth, or simply as a human being that is not separate from Nature but rather deeply connected and one with Nature. It has been shown how effective being in Nature is for one’s mental health and well-being that has positive effects on one’s mental, emotional, somatic, and spiritual health (Kevorkian, 2019). Therefore, by being in Nature and helping take care of it, one might receive healing from their ecological trauma, anxiety, or anticipatory grief. A potential area of future ecological grief work might be to go out into Nature, as a somatic experience for working through one’s grief and anxiety.

Forced migration or displacement due to climate change is another form of disenfranchised grief and one that is directly connected to ecological grief. Migration due to climate change is a form of ambiguous loss (Boss, 1999) where a person is either physically absent by psychologically present or the individual is physically present but psychologically absent. Due to the ambiguity that is experienced, these ambiguous losses can easily turn into disenfranchised grief, where the individual’s grief is not openly acknowledged, validated, or have a place or ritual for public mourning. In the context of migration due to climate change, the migrant may experience either being physically absent from their home country but psychologically still present there. For instance, the migrant is in another country but is psychologically still present back in their country of origin. This can be due to them missing and thinking about their loved ones still living there or they just miss their home. This can create a lot of grief and a sense of loss for the migrant due to being separate from their homeland and family and friends. Furthermore, if the migrant is in a foreign country that is unwelcoming towards migrants and has xenophobic policies towards undocumented migrants, then they can experience further layers of disenfranchisement of their grief, causing them to further isolate and not assimilate to their new country of residence (Perez and Arnold-Berkovits, 2018).

In the other form of ambiguous loss in this context, the migrant might have family still physically present in their homeland that is being harshly affected by climate change, but simultaneously they are psychologically absent because of the ecological trauma they have experienced or are forced to confront on a daily experience. Comtesse, et al., (2021) write that this is an example of solastalgia, where the individual experiences desolation, detachment and grieving in response to the loss of place which can feel like homesickness while still being at home. This happens when individuals are confronted with the irreplaceable changes to landscapes and ecosystems, due to climate change, that they have established a deep connection with. Galway, et al., (2019) further define solastalgia as “the distress caused by the unwelcome transformation of cherished landscapes resulting in cumulative mental, emotional and spiritual health impacts” (p. 11). Therefore, this form of ambiguous loss and disenfranchised grief can have significant impact on individual’s cognitive, emotional, physical, and spiritual health and well-being.

Therefore, as with ecological grief, the DPM can be applied here to work with the ambiguous loss and disenfranchised grief of migrants. In addressing the experience of forced migration, where the migrant is physically absent from their homeland but is psychologically present, there are certain ways the DPM can be effective for them. Beginning with the loss-orientation, the counselor may help the migrant work on addressing the intrusion of grief they feel by helping them work with the bonds they have with their homeland. For example, by allowing them to feel the loss of their country of origin, the migrant can begin to examine what it is that they are missing as well as why their homeland is taking up so much space in their psyche. This is where Bowlby’s (1982) attachment theory might come into play to help the migrant examine their attachments not only to family, friends, and the land back home — but also their culture. This will require the counselor to be culturally aware and humble while working with the migrant. Additionally, during the loss-orientation, the counselor might utilize narrative strategies (Neimeyer and Sands, 2011) to use storytelling to reconstruct one’s narrative of how they become a migrant, which can help reframe things and build resilience for people that have been through a lot of traumas. Again, one’s assumptive world can be turned upside down after a loss, so the narrative reconstruction can help address one’s former assumptive world and examine those previous beliefs that oriented their life, to see if they still have meaning or not in this new post-lost reality.

This narrative reconstruction could also be applied to working with migrants in the restoration-orientation of grief processing. With the restoration-orientation, the counselor might help the migrant to address life changes and their new reality within a foreign country by doing new things or taking on new hobbies and interests. Additionally, the counselor might help the migrant find new roles, identities, and relationships to cultivate. This not only will help the migrant avoid the intrusive feelings of grief, but it can also help them find new meaning and transformation in their lives. For example, the migrant during grief counseling might be offered that space to brainstorm and reflect on how they might adapt to their new reality of being a migrant. They can be offered tools to reconstruct their narrative to write a different story for themselves. A significant part of the restoration-orientation is allowing the bereaved to avoid the grief so that they can take steps in their lives towards finding out who they are now in this post-loss reality. In this model, avoidance is not judged or seen negatively. Rather it seen as a positive oscillation within the grief experience by allowing the bereaved to try new things and meet new people, which can help provide new meaning in one’s life.

Before closing, a few limitations with the DPM. First, the DPM with its oscillation between loss-orientation and restoration-orientation might cause some form of psychological whiplash. Might there be a way for the DPM to evolve where it also includes a more nondual component to it, where both orientations are not seen as two separate entities, but rather two sides of the same coin. To be able to hold both the grief and avoidance as one unified experience. The other significant limitation with DPM, and it’s not just relegated to DPM, is that it can only do so much to help people with disenfranchised grief. For example, with undocumented migrants there is so much that affects their mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being — just like all humans. However, in the case of undocumented migrants here in the United States, they can feel forced to live in the shadows due to the immigration policies here and the wider negative, social perception amongst a large part of the populace. Thus, the macro affects the micro and vice versa. However, in this case of migrants, the macro has such a significant factor on their lifestyles and how secure or insecure they feel to be in public spaces. Hence, the immigration laws and sociopolitical environment will have a significant impact on the efficacy of the DPM and counseling in general. This point is exactly why the Mental Health industry must continue to evolve to help address the macro societal issues that have such a significant impact on our physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health and well-being.

In conclusion, both ecological grief and forced migration due to global climate change are types of disenfranchised grief, where this grief is not yet openly acknowledged, socially validated, or publicly mourned. The DPM is a potential inclusive grief model for working with these types of disenfranchised grief, by allowing space for cultural awareness as well as the nuances and many layers of grief to be experienced in totality. Although, the DPM and any grief theory or model will never be fully sufficient for working with those experiencing disenfranchised grief, until the Mental Health industry evolves to address the macrocosm, i.e., the laws and policies that have significant influence on all our mental, emotional, physical, and spiritual health and well-being. A potential future development with grief work and disenfranchised grief might be to integrate Jungian and Transpersonal psychology, psychedelics, and Spiritual and Indigenous Wisdom traditions, i.e., Yoga or Daoism, into the grief counseling arena. There is so much wisdom in these traditions, especially regarding Nature and our deeply intertwined connection to and with Gaia/Pachamama (Earth).

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